Hydrogen and FCEVs discussion thread

IRENA sees renewable hydrogen at least cost-possible within decade

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Hydrogen produced with renewable electricity could compete on costs with fossil fuel alternatives by 2030, according to a new report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). A combination of falling costs for solar and wind power, improved performance as well as economies of scale for electrolyzers could make it possible.

The report—Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: The report—Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: scaling up electrolyzers to meet the 1.5 C climate goal—looks at drivers for innovation and presents strategies that governments can peruse to reduce the cost of electrolyzers by 40% in the short term and by up to 80% in the long term. . . .

Today, green hydrogen is 2-3 times more expensive than “blue” hydrogen, produced from fossil fuels in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The production cost for green hydrogen is determined by the renewable electricity price, the investment cost of the electrolyzer and its operating hours.

Renewables have already become the
the cheapest source of power in many parts of the world, with auctions reaching record price-lows below US$20 per megawatt-hour (MWh). While low-cost electricity is a necessary condition for competitive green hydrogen, investment costs for electrolysis facilities must fall significantly too. . . .

Standardization and mass-manufacturing of the electrolyzer stacks, efficiency in operation as well as the optimization of material procurement and supply chains will be equally important to bring down costs. For that, today’s manufacturing capacity of less than 1 GW would have to massively grow beyond 100 GW in the next 10 to 15 years.

In the best-case scenario, using low-cost renewable electricity at US$20/MWh in large, cost-competitive electrolyser facilities could produce green hydrogen at a competitive cost with blue hydrogen already today. If rapid scale-up and aggressive electrolyzers deployment take place in the next decade, green hydrogen could then start competing on costs with blue hydrogen by 2030 in many countries, making it cheaper than other low-carbon alternatives before 2040, IRENA’s analysis shows.

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Yara planning 500 kton/year green ammonia project in Norway

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Leading fertilizer company Yara plans to electrify fully its ammonia plant in Porsgrunn, Norway with the potential to cut 800,000 tonnes of CO2 per year, equivalent to the emissions from 300,000 passenger cars. Production from the electrified ammonia unit would be some 500,000 tonnes per year of green ammonia. . . .

Ammonia’s chemical properties make it suited for the hydrogen economy. It does not require cooling to extreme temperatures, and has a higher energy density than liquid hydrogen (3.75 kWh/liter vs. 2.0 kWh/liter and 5.22 kWh/kg vs. 33.33 kWh/kg), making it more efficient to transport and store. Ammonia (NH3) is therefore the most promising hydrogen carrier and zero-carbon shipping fuel.

leading position within global ammonia production, logistics and trade, Yara aims to capture opportunities within shipping, agriculture and industrial applications, in a market expected to grow by 60% over the next two decades.

In 2019, the company partnered with Nel to test Nel’s new prototype water electrolyzer technology at Porsgrunn. The capacity of the electrolyzer will be 5 MW corresponding to 1% of the hydrogen production in Porsgrunn. It is expected to be installed in 2022.

To make its vision of zero-emission ammonia production in Norway a reality, Yara is seeking partners and government support. Currently, the cost of green ammonia is estimated to be 2-4x higher than conventional product. If the required public co-funding and regulatory framework is in place, the project could be operational in 2026.

The project would eliminate one of Norway’s largest static CO2 sources, and would be a major contributor for Norway to reach its Paris agreement commitments. . . .

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Methanol fuel cell developer Blue World closes €6M investment round, leases production building

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Blue World Technologies’ methanol fuel cells are combined with batteries in hybrid configurations. The complete system includes methanol reformer for fuel conversion, DC/DC for power conversion and fuel cell stack for power production. The fuel cell control unit governs the fuel cell system as well as communicates with the vehicle. The methanol fuel cell system is based on High-Temperature PEM technology and methanol to hydrogen reforming. . . .

On the facilities side, Blue World Technologies will take over the new building on 1 January 2021 and will initiate installation and test of production equipment in the following months. The production facility will have a production capacity of up to 5,000 units (50 MW) per year. According to the plan, the initial production in the new production facilities is planned to start in mid-2021 as a pre-series production. . . .

Blue World Technologies is continuing the planning of a production site with an aim to reach a full-scale commercial production capacity of 50,000 fuel cell units within three years.

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cwerdna said:

Another fuel-cell outage hampers Bay Area fuel-cell drivers
https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1130717_another-fuel-cell-outage-hampers-bay-area-fuel-cell-drivers

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Haldor Topsoe and Aker Carbon Capture to cooperate on low-carbon hydrogen solutions

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. . . Based on syngas, Haldor Topsoe’s hydrogen process can be used to convert different feedstocks, from natural gas to heavy naphtha, into the purest hydrogen possible, with minimum energy consumption and emissions.

Aker Carbon Capture’s proprietary carbon capture process uses a mixture of water and organic amine solvents to absorb the CO2. This process can be applied on emissions from various sources, from gas, coal, cement, refineries, and waste-to-energy through to hydrogen and other process industries.

The European Union foresees investments of €11 billion for retrofitting half of the existing European hydrogen plants with carbon capture and storage before 2030. . . .

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Noble Gas Systems demonstrates latest generation of conformable tanks for high-pressure gases

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Noble Gas Systems . . . has demonstrated its latest generation of conformable gas tanks, which can be configured into existing vehicle architectures.

The new tanks, with working pressures of 350 bar (5,000 psi), are lightweight and less than 80mm (3.1") wide. 700 bar versions are under development. . . .

A safer alternative to other options, the system currently meets burst and hydrogen permeation requirements for 350-bar working pressures and has a leak-before-burst failure mode to eliminate the opportunity for a catastrophic, instantaneous release of high-pressure gas. . . .

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Logan Energy to support delivery of Holyhead Hydrogen Hub in Wales

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Scotland-based clean energy solutions provider Logan Energy won a public tender contract with Welsh social enterprise, Menter Môn, to support the delivery of a hydrogen production plant, refueling and distribution hub in Holyhead, North Wales. The Holyhead Hydrogen Hub will be a first of its kind and is supported by the Isle of Anglesey County Council and the Welsh Government’s Local Transport Fund. . . .

As an industry which contributes to around a quarter of global CO2 emissions, the energy-intensive haulage and heavy transport sector is in urgent need of efficient and scalable low-carbon energy solutions if net-zero targets are to be met by 2050. The current fuel demands of heavy industry goods vehicles in the Holyhead region are large and an initial study has identified a supply rate of more than 400 kg/day can kick-start the Hub which could be established by 2023.

As the second largest roll-on, roll-off (RoRo) port in the UK, with 500,000 annual HGV movements, Holyhead was identified as an ideal site for the Hub, hosting large HGV movements annually as well as potential demands at the port. Providing an ideal launchpad for larger, scaled-up green hydrogen production, the site will help release the full potential of the region’s vast renewable energy resources.

Scale-up can extend to trains, public transport, and shipping, and will include diversification to other hydrogen markets such as heat, industry, power, and agriculture. With a target operational date of 2023, this project will be the first to be developed in Wales under a Hub & Spoke model, which will see collaborations with complementary developments in other regions of Wales, the UK, and the Republic of Ireland. . . .

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Groupe Renault and Faurecia to collaborate on hydrogen storage systems for light commercial vehicles

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. . . Starting at the end of 2021, Faurecia will supply hydrogen storage systems for a first fleet of light commercial vehicles. These systems will be developed and produced at its global center of expertise in Bavans, France.

As volumes, increase production will be extended to a new plant dedicated to hydrogen storage systems that Faurecia is building in Allenjoie, France. . . .

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DOE to award up to $20M for projects demonstrating integration of nuclear power and hydrogen

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. . . Activities of interest include nuclear-powered hydrogen production (at least 1 megawatt), with flexible operation to manage electrical demand and intermittent renewable energy on the grid. Proposed projects must also include integration of a specific hydrogen end use demonstration, focusing on applications that offer potential for significant greenhouse gas emission reduction, as well as cost competitive market potential.

End-use applications may include, but are not limited to, transportation, power generation, or industrial processes. Examples include using hydrogen for the production of chemicals such as ammonia or other hydrogen carriers, or for manufacturing products such as steel or cement. . . .

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Hydra Energy partners with Chemtrade to provide commercial truck fleets with green hydrogen below the cost of diesel

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. . . The long-term contract is a pillar of Hydra’s Hydrogen-as-a-Service (HaaS) business model and includes Hydra capturing, cleaning, and compressing hydrogen sourced from Chemtrade.

In exchange for long-term, discounted fuel contracts with fleets, Hydra installs hydrogen-diesel co-combustion conversion kits into existing semi-trucks and provides the fueling infrastructure for green hydrogen sourced from chemical producers such as Chemtrade. Hydra pays for the truck conversion and the on-site fueling infrastructure.

Initially, both companies are focused on one of Chemtrade’s plants in British Columbia with the potential to expand across the country. Commercial truck fleet operators with Hydra-converted semi-trucks can access green hydrogen at a fixed price, five percent below the price they typically pay for diesel.

Multi-year pilots demonstrated an ability to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions up to 40%, using hydrogen-injection technology and fuel source without impacting truck performance or range. Natural gas distributors can also use the green hydrogen to meet renewable content requirements. . . .

The flagship Hydra-Chemtrade commercial project will break ground this year, with gas expected to be flowing in 2022.

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Snam and Hera to collaborate on green hydrogen development; power-to-gas

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EC proposes 10 new European Partnerships and €10B for green & digital transition; Clean Hydrogen Partnership

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. . . The partnerships include the Clean Hydrogen Partnership which will build on the success of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) with a proposed budget of €1 billion of public funding complemented by an equivalent private investment.

This Partnership will be organized in three pillars: hydrogen production, hydrogen distribution and hydrogen usage in transport, industry, buildings. As a sign of the growing interest in hydrogen, six other sectoral partnerships will also support hydrogen technologies—road transport, train, maritime, aviation, clean steel and clean process industries which now consider hydrogen as a key tool to achieve their climate objectives.

The Partnership will include R&D but also large-scale demonstration and some early deployment in flagship projects. . . .

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NREL releases comprehensive vision for deep decarbonization of transportation

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. . . At the basic level, our strategy is simple: pair the best technology with the right application—whether that’s an electrified ride to school, a hydrogen-fueled big rig, or a commercial flight powered by low-carbon biofuel. We envision a mobility system fueled with clean, renewable energy, delivered directly by vehicle electrification, or indirectly by low-carbon, energy-dense fuels and renewable hydrogen for those sectors, like marine and aviation, that are harder to electrify.

—Chris Gearhart, director of NREL’s Center for Integrated Mobility Sciences. . . .

Like bioenergy, hydrogen sits at the center of NREL’s strategy for a transportation system decoupled from carbon emissions. While today’s market for hydrogen as a transportation fuel is limited to California and parts of Hawaii and the East Coast, experts at NREL think it will play an increasingly key role across the country to store energy and provide the emissions-free muscle needed for heavy-duty trucking, rail, and marine freight. . . .

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SK Group closes $1.6B investment in Plug Power to advance hydrogen strategy; new Hydrogen Business Development Center

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SK Group, South Korea’s largest energy provider and third-largest conglomerate, announced the close of a $1.6-billion investment in and strategic partnership with Plug Power Inc., a leading provider of hydrogen fuel cell and fueling solutions enabling e-mobility. (Earlier post.)

The partnership is part of a long-term, multi-billion dollar plan by SK to help lead the global transition to a hydrogen economy and make meaningful progress toward a more sustainable energy system. . . .

*SK Group closed on its investment and strategic partnership with Plug Power, a company based in Latham, N.Y. Together, the companies plan to provide hydrogen fuel cell systems, hydrogen fueling stations and electrolyzers to Korean and other Asian markets. The investment was valued at $1.6 billion at signing on Thursday.

*SK E&S has established a hydrogen development business, committing to producing 30,000 tons of liquefied hydrogen—utilizing product from SK Innovation—each year beginning in 2023, and 250,000 tons of “blue hydrogen” starting in 2025. SK E&S plans to become a global eco-friendly energy company that incorporates renewable energy sources by expanding its business to all areas of the hydrogen ecosystem, including production, distribution and sales.

*SK E&S will use SK Energy’s gas stations and truck stops as Green Energy Hubs for hydrogen distribution. By 2025, the company aims to have created 280K tons of supply.

SK expects its investments in hydrogen to create $2.7 billion of net asset value by 2025. Across its operating companies and partnerships, SK is taking actions to support a robust hydrogen economy from end-to-end with a focus on every major phase—upstream production of raw materials, midstream transport of resources and downstream conversion into energy used by customers to power their vehicles, homes and businesses.

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Westport Fuel Systems & AVL conclude high-efficiency H2 powertrain can outperform fuel cells in TCO for heavy-duty applications

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A model-based analysis by Westport
Fuel Systems and AVL indicates that H2-HPDI (High Pressure Direct Injection with pilot ignition)—a combustion approach for hydrogen in engines—has the potential to achieve fuel economy close to that of a fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV) for heavy duty applications, due to its high efficiency at both part and full loads.

In a joint publication, WFS and AVL conclude that the combined high efficiency and lower system costs relative to FCEVs make H2-HPDI the most capital efficient means to use hydrogen and lower CO2 emissions near-term and that it has the potential to remain competitive with fully industrialized FCEV in the future. . . .

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SK Group to invest $16.4B to create hydrogen production-distribution-consumption ecosystem by 2025

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Korea-based SK Group will invest about 18 trillion won (US$16.4 billion) over the next five years to create a domestic hydrogen ecosystem—production, distribution, and consumption—through creation of domestic hydrogen infrastructure and also through partnerships with global companies.

In the first phase, SK E&S, SK Group’s hydrogen business promotion company, will invest about 500 billion won (US$446 million) to build a liquefied hydrogen (LH2) production plant with a production capacity of 30,000 tonnes of liquefied hydrogen. For this purpose, SK will use a site in the SK Incheon Petrochemical Complex in Wonchang-dong, Seo-gu, Incheon.

The LH2 plant will take byproduct gaseous hydrogen supplied from SK Incheon Petrochemical, purify it, process it into a liquid, and supply it to the metropolitan Incheon area. The first phase project is thus also one of the pillars of the Incheon city hydrogen cluster construction project. It is expected to become an important foundation for the expansion of hydrogen infrastructure at Incheon International Airport, Incheon Port, and industrial complexes.

In the second phase, SK will invest 5.3 trillion won (US$4.7 billion) by 2025 in a hydrogen production plant. The plant will produce 250,000 tons of hydrogen from liquefied natural gas while removing 250,000 tons of carbon dioxide through carbon capture and treatment technology.

Combined with the Phase 1 project, SK plans to produce and supply a total of 280,000 tons of eco-friendly hydrogen annually in Korea, and use these business experiences and capabilities to fully promote hydrogen business in Asia, including China and Vietnam.

In addition to supplying liquefied hydrogen, SK plans to make active investments in establishing a distribution system for eco-friendly hydrogen.

SK will operate 100 hydrogen charging stations nationwide by 2025 to supply 80,000 tons of liquefied hydrogen per year. . . .

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Haldor Topsoe to build large-scale SOEC electrolyzer manufacturing facility to meet customer needs for green hydrogen

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Haldor Topsoe will invest in a manufacturing facility producing highly efficient solid oxide electrolyzers (SOEC) with a total capacity of 500 megawatt per year with the option to expand to 5 gigawatt per year.

With efficiencies above 90%, Topsoe’s proprietary SOEC electrolyzers offer superior performance in electrolysis of water into hydrogen—e.g., 30% greater output—when compared to standard alkaline or PEM electrolyzers. The superior efficiency stems from the fact that the SOEC works at temperatures above 700 drg C, which sets it apart from standard electrolysis technologies. The facility is expected to be operational by 2023. . . .

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Industry & environmentalists tell EU the future of shipping fuel is green hydrogen and ammonia

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. . . In a public letter, shipping companies DFDS, CMB and Viking Cruises, commodities trader Trafigura, and green group Transport & Environment (T&E) say green hydrogen and ammonia are sustainable and can be produced in sufficient quantities to decarbonise the industry.

Biofuels, on the other hand, do not offer a sustainable alternative for shipping, the groups say, as crop-based biofuels emit more than the fossil fuels they replace and there will not be enough advanced biofuels. Instead, lawmakers must send a clear signal to potential investors to focus on renewable electricity-based hydrogen and ammonia when the EU proposes its maritime fuel policy next month, the letter states. . . .

Globally, €1.4 trillion in capital investments will be required to produce green hydrogen and ammonia for the shipping industry. The European Commission should seize this opportunity to create new jobs and support sustainable economic growth—in line with the EU Green Deal, the groups say.

The European Commission will propose its FuelEU Maritime Initiative in April. Shipping accounts for about 13% of greenhouse gas emissions from European transport. . . .

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Eastern Pacific Shipping, OCI & MAN partner to develop methanol & ammonia as marine fuels; retrofits and newbuilds

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. . . The partnership involves using select conventional vessels from EPS’ existing tanker fleet that use MAN engines to be retrofitted, allowing them to be powered by methanol and ammonia which will be supplied by OCI. Also, EPS will construct newbuild vessels with MAN engines powered by the same two alternative marine fuels. OCI intends to charter the first retrofitted vessel from EPS. . . .

EPS said that the partnership is an example of different industry players with aligned values coming together to lower greenhouse gas emissions. The company also said that the MOU is an example of not letting the perfect be the enemy of the good, as the technology to retrofit vessels to run on methanol exists today while using methanol and ammonia on newbuilds is still a few years away. . . .

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TECO 2030 to set up giga factory for production of hydrogen fuel cells in Narvik, Norway

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. . . Through the initiative in Narvik, the company contributes to the Norwegian government’s ambition that Norway should build a complete value chain for the utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier. . . .

The plan calls for a gradual increase of the plant’s capacity. Work on the site is planned to start in 2021, and the first production is expected next year. Total investments of up to NOK 1 billion (US$116 million) are expected over a ten-year period. . . .

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Hystar raises $5.9M+ to develop and commercialize its high-efficiency thin-membrane PEM electrolysis tech

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developing a novel PEM electrolysis technology, has raised more than NOK 50 million (US$5.9 million) to support further development and commercialization. Hystar’s electrolyzer produces hydrogen using less energy than existing technologies and enables a substantial increase in hydrogen production output. . . .

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Westport Fuel Systems successfully completes initial startup and testing on hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine; H2-HPDI

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Construction of the world’s largest project plant for storing green hydrogen in LOHC begins in Germany
17 March 2021

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The world’s largest plant for storing green hydrogen in liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) on an industrial scale is being built at CHEMPARK Dormagen. The state of North Rhine-Westphalia is supporting the project with funding of €9 million from the progres.nrw program. The Krefeld-based subsidiary of Hydrogenious LOHC Technologies, LOHC Industrial Solutions NRW GmbH, will take charge of project management and plant operation.

With its proprietary LOHC technology, the Erlangen-based parent company can contribute the key element and the corresponding scaled plant system. Its investor Covestro Deutschland AG will provide the site area and, in the future, the green hydrogen. The scientific partner is the Jülich Research Center with its Institute for Energy and Climate Research; €2 million of the funding for accompanying scientific studies will go there.

Together with the Dutch co-investor Royal Vopak, a possible expansion of the project and potential establishment of a green hydrogen supply chain between the plant in Dormagen and Rotterdam is also being planned. There, the green hydrogen would be released from the LOHC and used primarily in the mobility and industrial sectors. . . .

Hydrogenious’ LOHC technology bonds hydrogen molecules to the organic carrier (dibenzyltoluene) via an exothermic catalytic process. The uptake is 57 kg of H2 per cubic meter LOHC. The LOHC remains is a liquid state across a broad temperature range (-39 to +390 deg.C) and ambient pressure. It is thus transportable using convention fuel infrastructure.

Dehydrogenation—the release of the H2 from the carrier—is an endothermic process with about 11 kWhth/kgH2 required at 300 deg.C.

One focus of the project is to integrate the heat energy released during the LOHC hydrogenation process into the steam network and thus into the site’s energy supply. The overall efficiency of the LOHC cycle can thus be significantly increased. Commissioning of the plant is scheduled for 2023.

Covestro Deutschland AG—a shareholder in Hydrogenious LOHC Technologies since mid-2019—plans to supply the green hydrogen for this purpose. This will be produced at the site in future as an industrial by-product. . . .

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Haldor Topsoe and Aquamarine enter MoU for green ammonia facility based on SOEC electrolysis

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Aquamarine is developing a large-scale green ammonia facility to be constructed in multiple stages. In the first stage of the project, the proposed facility will use Haldor Topsoe’s proprietary solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOEC) (earlier post) to produce green hydrogen from 100 MW of renewable electricity. The hydrogen will be further processed into 300 ton/day of green ammonia, also using Topsoe technology. The produced ammonia can be used as a green marine fuel or as fertilizer.

Topsoe says that its proprietary high-temperature electrolysis SOEC technology offers up to 30% more green hydrogen output compared to standard technology such as PEM and alkaline electrolysis. Subject to a final investment decision, the facility is expected to be commissioned in 2024. . . .

Aquamarine will develop the project and seek relevant permits for the project, which will be located in northern Germany close to existing offshore wind farms, where the product can be sold to the marine shipping industry. . . .

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Hydro-Quebec to commercialize University of South Wales manganese hydride molecular sieve for H2 storage

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. . . The material takes advantage of a chemical process called Kubas binding. This process enables the storage of hydrogen by distancing the hydrogen atoms within a H2 molecule and works at room temperature. This eliminates the need to split, and bind, the bonds between atoms, processes that require high energies and extremes of temperature and need complex equipment to deliver.

This technology has several key advantages over existing hydrogen storage options, namely:

Greater storage capacity

Less weight for the same storage capacity

Increased safety linked to a lower tank pressure

Lower manufacturing costs

Simplified infrastructure need

No need for liquefaction step, generating savings in large-scale transport. . . .

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Researchers and industry present interim results of the MethanQuest project

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The flagship project MethanQuest was launched in September 2018, and on it a total of 29 partners from research, industry and the energy sector have come together to work on processes for producing hydrogen and methane from renewables and for using them to achieve climate-neutral mobility and power generation. The project participants have now submitted their interim results. These relate to electrolysis systems for producing hydrogen, both on land and in offshore wind parks, equipment for producing methane, the use of gas engines in cars, ships and CHP plants, and concepts for energy systems that efficiently couple the transport, electrical power, gas and heating sectors. Common to all plant and processes is the integration of renewable energies. . . .

The German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) is providing some 19 million Euros in funds to the MethanQuest project. . . .

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Black & Veatch to assess feasibility of world’s largest green hydrogen plant: $5.4B Base One; 600 million kg/pa

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. . . When operational, Enegix Energy’s planned Base One facility in Ceara, Brazil will produce more than 600 million kilograms of green hydrogen annually. Base One is anticipated to take three to four years to build.

The highly ambitious new-build electrolysis facility will be powered entirely by renewable energy, initially 3.4 gigawatts of solar and onshore wind. Ceara's potential for renewable energy generation, coupled with access to a strategic deep-sea port to facilitate the export of hydrogen, was key to the choice of the scoped 500-hectare site for the US$5.4-billion investment.

Enegix Energy has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with Black & Veatch for the delivery of feasibility studies key to advancing the green hydrogen plant’s creation. . . .

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Doosan Fuel Cell partners with Korea Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering on SOFCs for ships

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. . . Doosan will design and produce the SOFCs, and KSOE will focus on the integration of the fuel cells in ships.

In November 2020, Doosan announced a plan to work with Navig8, a global shipping company, to introduce fuel cells for ships.

Under this agreement, Doosan Fuel Cell will provide SOFCs to a 50,000 ton petrochemical carrier set to be ordered by Navig8. Navig8 as well as Korean Register will help review the ship design and provide other technical support.

In October 2020, the company unveiled its plan to develop more efficient SOFCs in the Korean market. The goal is to localize cells and stacks and to mass-produce SOFC systems in Korea from 2024. This SOFC R&D is part of the project of the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy.

Doosan’s SOFC will be designed to operate at 620 deg. C, approximately 200 deg. C lower than the typical operating temperatures, with higher efficiency and longer life.

Doosan has focused primarily on stationary SOFCs up to now. Its Model 400 systems can use natural gas, hydrogen or LPG and natural gas as fuels.

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Boeing’s Insitu advances its fuel cell technology; LH2 fueling

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Scania has invested in hydrogen technologies and is currently the only heavy-duty vehicle manufacturer with vehicles in operations with customers. The engineers have gained valuable insights from these early tests and efforts will continue. However, going forward the use of hydrogen for such applications will be limited since three times as much renewable electricity is needed to power a hydrogen truck compared to a battery electric truck. A great deal of energy is namely lost in the production, distribution, and conversion back to electricity.

Repair and maintenance also need to be considered. The cost for a hydrogen vehicle will be higher than for a battery electric vehicle as its systems are more complex, such as an extensive air- and cooling system. Furthermore, hydrogen is a volatile gas which requires more maintenance to ensure safety.

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